THE ALTERNATIVE CITY Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

THE ALTERNATIVE CITY - Term Paper Example The fundamental desire of Hammar Sjostad organizers was to expand the city, so as to fulfill the developing need for urban living. Extension of downtown area was additionally done to meet Sweden recognized natural, vitality, social and conservative objectives for what's to come. In answer to natural and different powers, the Swedish government expressed that it needed to build up the idea of a â€Å"green government assistance state,† where everybody lives in great lodging, sensible expense, and secure condition inside a drawn out reasonable structure. The earth program in the city was politically determined making it spread to a worldwide unbelievable viable program (Ahlroth, 2011). The program included focuses for refinement, utilization of Brownfield land, demoralizing utilization of vehicles and giving open vehicle choices, vitality utilization and reusing of water and waste. Reusing of vitality, waste and water the executives was grown together by Stockholm Water Company, Birka Enrgy and the City of Stockholm squander the executives department. In Hammarby Sjostad city, the sewage water is reused and filtered everywhere sewage plants and the waste reused into flammable gas, which is diverted to be utilized as a vitality hotspot for the locale (Ahlroth, 2011). Filtration process produces heat, which is reused for use at neighborhood-warming units. Hammarly Sjostad city has its own sewage treatment focus where supplements from the sewage are reused and utilized in agrarian land. The city the executives ensures that all ignitable waste items are reused into heat vitality to be utilized in condos. The point of the organizers of hammarby Sjostad city is to limit ecological contamination and expand the utilization of waste items created by city occupants. Transport framework is basic for another city achievement. Organizers of Hammarly Sjostad considered the coordination of an ace travel intend to meet social and natural tension of the venture (Ahlroth, 2 011). Open vehicle is urged to ease clogs in the city by private vehicles. The utilization of many vehicle advancements has made Hammarly Sjostad city open. There is a ship interface framework, which takes individuals over the lake and it goes through from morning to 12 PM. Organizers of Hammarly Sjostad objectives were to structure a city that is novel. The objective was to make a private situation dependent on viable asset utilization, where vitality utilization and waste items are diminished while asset sparing and reusing simultaneously expanded. The city’s authority put forth attempts to meet the populace increment in Stockholm, and had the option to bring top notch lodging onto the market when request was expanding. Great arranging acquired exclusive expectations plan quality and natural execution of the structure (Ahlroth, 2011). Arranging application in Sjostad depends on the existence cycle cost investigation henceforth making it less difficult to legitimize higher s tarting interest in great performing building plans. The warming, transport and waste assortment frameworks were wanted to cooperate to decrease the measure of vitality and assets required to keep up them over the long haul (Ahlroth, 2011). Hammarly city arranging organization anticipated that inhabitants would be more established individuals and after culmination of condo squares, individuals moving in were youthful families. The improvement didn't meet its objective for vehicle proprietors as a result of constrained parking spots. References

Shermans March essays

Shermans March expositions Sherman and his 105,000 Union troopers walked through Georgia and into the Carolinas during the time of March. Sherman trusted his walk to the ocean would bring down the Confederates assurance and help win the war. Sherman and his men started their walk in Dalton, Georgia on November 16 of a year ago. Sherman at that point spread his military out to a fifty-mile wide distance across and headed towards Atlanta, Georgia. Sherman's men incorporated the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of the Tennessee, and the Army of the Ohio. On March 19 General Johnston assaulted one of Sherman's propelling segments. Sherman's men rearranged and Johnston's men chilled out. Sherman and his men followed not far behind. Because of poor climate and soaked streets, the interest was eased back down. General Betonville Johnston posted his Confederate Army of Tennessee in Dalton, Georgia. Sherman at that point sent his men around the Confederate's left flank. May 12, 1864 Johnston withdrew and dropped fifteen miles south to Reseca, Georgia and took another solid position. Sherman again made a left flanking move. Johnston again maintained a strategic distance from Sherman's assault and traveled south to Altoona, Georgia . In only one month Sherman and his men had voyage eighty miles in quest for Johnston. There was continuos battling between the different sides, however there were no enormous fights or overwhelming losses. On June 27, Sherman by and by assaulted Johnston at Kennesaw Mountain. Association troops were rebuffed with 2,000 slaughtered and injured. Johnston endured with 5,000 losses. Sherman by and by moved into a flanking move, yet Johnston withdrew. By early July, Johnston had moved back to the edges of Atlanta. Sherman at that point moved into a sickle, going up against Johnston toward the northwest, west, and southwest. On July 17, Jefferson Davis eased Johnston of his obligations and supplanted him with General John B. Hood. On July 20 and 22, General Hood sent his men to strike Sherman's lines, however the two assaults were shocked. On July 28, ... <!

Social constructivism Essay - 275 Words

Social constructivism (Essay Sample) Content:  HYPERLINK "/sys/orders/view/612518" \o "social constructionism" \t "_blank" SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISMName Subject Date Social constructivism is basically a sociological term of knowledge which applies the universal idealistic constructivism into social environments, wherein groups or teams construct knowledge for themselves, collaboratively making a small culture of collective meanings and shared artifacts. Normally, when an individual is engrossed within such a culture, he or she is actually learning all the time on the way to be part and parcel of that kind of culture on various levels.Social constructivism and social constructionism are sociological hypothesis of knowledge which actually considers the way social phenomena in social contexts develops. Within constructionist point of view, social construction actually is a practice or concept that is the creation of a specific group as it has already been stated. Social constructs are commonly known to be the by-pr oducts (frequently unconscious or unintended) of countless human choices but not laws that actually result from nature or divine will. This is actually not taken to mean a radical anti-determinism. Social constructionism is normally opposed to essentialism, which actually defines particular aspects instead in the respect of transhistorical essences free of conscious beings that decide the definite structure of reality.Furthermore, a major emphasis of social constructionism is actually to expose the ways in which groups and individuals take part in the formation of their alleged social reality. It entails looking at the manner in which social phenomena are institutionalized, created, and turned into tradition by humans themselves. Socially constructed realities are viewed as a continuing, dynamic process; while reality is actually reproduced by individuals acting on their knowledge and interpretations of it. Social constructivism therefore refers to a persons making connotation or sense of knowledge in a social context. For this reason, social constructivism is usually expressed as a psychological construct. During the 1970s, social constructionist theory underwent some alteration as constructionist sociologists turned to the Michel Foucaults work as a turn to the social sciences was being worked out in practice. Actually, this aspect had a particular effect on the development sociology of science as well as the rising field of technology. In particular, Steve Woolgar employed social constructionism specifically to mean what science has actually grouped as objective facts particularly to the social construction processes; with the objective of indicating that human subjectivity actually forces itself on the facts that people take to be objective and not exclusively the other way around. Similarly, Social Constructionism actually shaped studies of technology - particularly on the technology used in business. Despite its general view as objective, mathematic s is actually not immune to the accounts of social constructivists. Social constructivism guarantees that the knowledge that is gained has an explanation and a true source in society. An advantage as there is no doubt in the knowledge source researchers; having society as the definitive source can actually not be refuted in the constructivist paradigm. On the contrary, is that in the paradigm positivist the same knowledge can actually become questioned or distorted which can basically be damaging. Furthermore, using the social constructivist approach permits for ease in the studying groups. This approach is usually grounded on the foundation that formation of knowledge is a product of the society. Whilst on the opposite, it is nearly impracticable to exclusively study an individual or groups of people using the approach. Besides, in order to ascertain the knowledge sources of individuals, one must ultimately look outside individuals as well as towards the society. Thus the person carrying out the study will not be able to entirely study individuals using the approach, since all individuals are ...

Research Process Of Interviews, Observation And Analysis

The research process of interviews, observation and analysis took place between 3rd April and 12th April, for about nine days. Interview was taken face-to-face with all the individuals. Before having face to face interviews, two short survey questionnaire was asked to fill out by each of the individual of the team. This was a bit challenging part since it was essential that this questionnaire is completed at the same time, so that the findings obtained from each one of them is regarded as equal. Majority of the times the individual interviews took place at an isolated place in order to ensure that the respondents can answer freely without any pressure, and each one of them was made sure that their responses would be used solely for the purpose of research in the paper. All the respondents answered the questions openly without any sort of hesitation or problems. Almost all the interviews took somewhere between 15-20 minutes on an average. However, it did go to around 30 minutes when the Founder was interviewed in the very beginning. The first few days were initially spent observing and analyzing the behavior of the individuals towards each other, and towards the newest member of the team. After observing and noticing few important elements since over the past 5 days, individual interviews were held on 7th and 8th April as and when the respondents became available, generally during breaks between their works. As I familiarized my research work more and more to theShow MoreRelatedQualitative Research Essay1628 Words   |  7 PagesQualitative Research in Nursing Date of last revision : January 28, 2011 â€Å"Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts† -Albert Einstein INTRODUCTION †¢ Qualitative research methods have become increasingly important as ways of developing nursing knowledge for evidence-based nursing practice. Qualitative research answers a wide variety of questions related to nursings concern with human responses to actual or potential health problems. (Ploeg JRead MoreThe Impact Of Using Computer Aided Architectural Design1163 Words   |  5 Pages3.0 Research methodology The aim to investigate the impact of using Computer Aided Architectural Design (CAAD) software on students’ creativity, this section going to presents the adopted research design, criteria of sampling, data collection methods, and the data analysis methods. 3.1 Research design Since the relationship of CAAD and creativity represents a complex as reviews in literature, a combination method between case study and qualitative method approach is consider appropriate. A caseRead MoreDesign Of The Study On Art Education Curriculum And Practices1425 Words   |  6 PagesChapter Three: Methodology Design of the Study This qualitative research study examines ideas concerning how art education curriculum and practices might best engage students living in poverty. The main research question asks: How might art education curriculum and practices best engage students living in poverty? Sub questions that developed from the initial research question are: What art curriculum can be implemented to best engage students living in low SES situations? What teaching practicesRead MoreBusiness Is Developing For Competitive Advantage1210 Words   |  5 PagesThis research will answer the question â€Å"How e-business is developing for competitive advantage to provide profit maximization to DELL’s online business? To answer this question the research will review the initial period of Dell’s business and the effectiveness of those strategies and models. 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Qualitative method involves use of randomRead MoreDifferent Methods Of Qualitative Research1313 Words   |  6 Pagesapproaches to research and look into more detail at the main traditions and theoretical approaches to qualitative research, the main research methods associated with qualitative research; and the main criticisms that are frequently levelled at qualitative research. There are many different definitions of qualitative research; one definition that defines it well is; â€Å"a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involvesRead MoreThe Real Estate Development And Other Investment Multipronged Implication1293 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Methodology The chapter contains the methodology which would be employed for the study that focused on the real estate development and other investment multipronged implication to the sustenance of rural livelihood analysis of Dukem town. To performed the study, the researcher design the descriptive or explanatory approach entirely focused both qualitative and quantitative methods to collect primary as well as secondary data using interviews, questionnaire, FGD, observation and expert panel

Personal Statement On Depression And Depression Essay

I Wadnesha Cherry am expounding on my case in reference to depression claim. Having constant agony implies numerous things change, and a great deal of them is undetectable. Not at all like having disease or being harmed in a mischance, a great many people don t see even somewhat about ceaseless agony and its belongings, and of those that think they know numerous are really misguided. In the soul of advising the individuals who wish to comprehend that these are the things that I might want, for you to comprehend about me under the watchful eye of you judge me in light of the fact that my handicap has been enabling me to keep solid employment. My foot swells on a day to day basis regardless of the medications that I have been prescribed by the VA for pain and swelling. The continuously swelling of my foot enables me to be the woman and the mother that I need to be for my children. It is hard doing things with my children because most of the time I am in so much pain. Because of this pain I really feel less than a woman and a mother because I cannot give to my children the way an able bodied person is able to give to their children. My children miss out on a lot because of my disability not being able to interact with them being in so much pain. They also miss out on a lot because I can’t work and be productive. I can’t stand for long periods of time, and when I do my foot swells which leads to lower back pains, When I wash dishes I have to take a break and then go sit downShow MoreRelatedReaction Paper to Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness1000 Words   |  4 Pagesliterary work â€Å"Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness† writes from a very personal viewpoint of the symptoms and the impact of depression, particularly on his own life. Not only his life in general, but how it impacted his social and emotional relationships with others and even the effect on his own self-image. In a way, Mr. Styron ‘normalizes’ the various reactions and symptoms individuals may have when suffering from depression. He EVEN begins the book acknowledging a moment in his life where it wasRead MoreMental Illness And Condition That Influences The Brain1654 Words   |  7 Pagesthe mental illness. Depression is a mental illness and condition that influences the brain. The mental illness affects an individual’s feelings and thoughts negatively which results in the lowering of one’s mood. 2. Describe the nature of the mental illness. Depression is a real mental condition that affects many people around the world. It affects all ages, social backgrounds and genders. There are many signs and symptoms of depression. Common symptoms of depression are sleeping problemsRead MoreThe Effects Of Social Networking On Society1545 Words   |  7 Pagesindividuals that they already have a real-life connection to, locate individuals they have shared interests with, and they allow users to share information with others such as photographs, life events and thoughts. Being able to keep current with one s personal group quickly and easily is one of the reasons SNS have become so mainstream (McKensie 436). 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I have personal experience with this topic so I have an interest in reading and writing about this topic. This discussion deals with the relationship between exercising and depression. Many people believe that exercising helps with depression and boosts your mood, happiness and overall enjoyment of life. This is important because over 350 million people arou nd the globe suffer from depression, 18 million of those people being in theRead MoreDepression Is A Highly Prevalent Mental Disorder With Estimates1690 Words   |  7 PagesDepression is a highly prevalent mental disorder with estimates indicating that it affects up to 6.7 percent of the United States population age eighteen and older in a given year for Major Depression and 1.5 percent for Persistent Depressive Disorder. The prevalence of mental disorders is the greatest among those who are ages 16 to 24 years of age (ADAA, 2016). 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The impact of women’s mental health on alcohol use is very significant to examine as prenatal alcohol use, which is common and can have serious negative consequences for the evolving fetus. Elevated symptoms of depression and anxiety can increase risk for binge drinking during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy may be associated with extremely detrimental effects for the developing fetusRead MoreWall Street : The Great And Powerful Financial District Of The World1407 Words   |  6 Pages Wall Street is the great and powerful financial district of the world. With that statement being true Wall Street isn’t perfect. Wall Street has faced many problems throughout its existence as recessions and depressions came into play and single handedly pushed America into a financial crisis. As early as 1929 till as recent as 2008 recessions still occur and throughout the existence of Wall Street they will never stop existing. 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How Emotions Influence Decision-Making free essay sample

To express too much anger or happiness, could be because of pressure that does not allow individuals to be themselves and results in a society that does not learn how to have unique ideas or critically think. It is difficult to believe that a government would control a society by forcing them to burn books which deprives them of gaining knowledge and wisdom. In both the book, Fahrenheit 451 written by Ray Bradbury, and the movie, Pleasantville directed by Gary Ross, the citizens struggle with self-identity, but the moods are very different in each society. Pleasantville is a Utopian society where nobody fought and wives were always trying to make their husbands happy, which is in contrast to Fahrenheit 451, a Dystopian society in which Montag and Mildred are a good example of a couple that did not love each other and was not happy. In contrast, the society in Fahrenheit 451 are miserable versus in Pleasantville where they are happy, but similarly, each society conforms to living routine lives by conforming to rules which end in dissatisfaction, people being demeaned, and a loss in their identity. We will write a custom essay sample on How Emotions Influence Decision-Making or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In Fahrenheit 451, the people are ruled by a law that books can not be read or else they will be burned, which consequently, deprives them of learning about their past history or thinking critically. The people are afraid of further knowledge and not following the law so they continue to be ignorant. Unfortunately, this creates a dystopian society of miserable and depressed people who are dissatisfied with their lives. When Beatty said, â€Å"Many sports for everyone†¦.† this seems to show how people keep going about their business day after day without any emotion which is a sign of dissatisfaction. Likewise, Mildred who was Montag’s wife was very consumed with watching television all day long and really did not care about anyone or anything else. Watching television all day can make you lazy and does nothing to stimulate your mind. This supports why Mildred was dissatisfied with her life, and why she was depressed and tried to commit suicide.which deprived the people of In today’s society people are always considered stereotypical. The people who take an alternate route are considered different in the publics eyes. both make it very evident that society is scripted and never goes with the flow. This takes away from peoples emotions and they just seem like robots. Their society is like living life inside of a box and anyone who goes outside of the box is considered forbidden. they shame on them. In both the book and the movie it confronts the problem and is very easily depicted.

Pride And Prejudice By Jane Austen Essays (1268 words) -

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Annonymous Everyone has control over something. Whether it be themselves, someone else, or a possession, they have control. Throughout the play Macbeth, written by Shakespeare, Macbeth is controlled by three witches and also his wife. Macbeth has a free will to choose to do what he wants but he frequently chooses to do what others want or predict of him. In Act I, Scene iii, Macbeth cant withhold himself from knowing more of what the witches have to predict. He says to them, Stay, you imperfect speakers. Tell me more.(73) This is where the witches begin to gain control over Macbeth, we know this because he doesnt want them to leave and wants to know more about what he will become. When Macbeth finds out what the witches have predicted of him is coming true, he becomes stunned. He then begins to think of how he will be king, and all the prophecies will be won. Macbeth makes an aside saying, Two truths are told as happy prologues to the swelling act of the imperial theme. (I, iii, 140) Here Macbeth is falling into the trap of the witches by realizing that he will be able to conquer the quest of becoming king. It seems like Macbeth is someone who always gets what he wants, this greed that he has causes a problem. He wants to become king, but others stand in his way, such as Banquo, Fleance, and Macduff. He says in Act I, Scene iv, to Banquo, If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me without my stir. (157) He knows that he has done nothing to become Thane of Glamis, so he doesnt have to do anything to become king. At this point it seems that Macbeth feels it is destiny for him to be king but it soon changes to his free will. Like stated before, Macbeth thought he had done nothing to become Thane of Glamis but, he had. Macbeth had chopped the king of Norways head off during battle. This shows that in order for Macbeth to have gained Thane of Glamis he must kill. When he realizes this, he comes to find out that he will have to get rid of those in his way by killing them to become king. This is when he switches from destiny to free will. The prophecies then become a mind game to him and he struggles with his conscious between doing right and wrong. He then strides to make what the witches prophesized true. Lady Macbeth first takes control over her husband in Act I, Scene v. She tells Macbeth that they will kill Duncan during his sleep. She says to Macbeth, O, never shall sun that morrow see! He thats coming must be provided for and you shall put this nights great business into my dispatch (71-80) Macbeth agrees with his wife when he answers back to her, This shows that he will proceed with the killing because he wants to become king and will do anything he can to make the prophecies true. Macbeth has a strong intuition to kill, and nothing will stop him. Its like he is under a spell from the witches and has to make what they predicted come true. He knows that killing is wrong but he wants to be king. During a soliloquy, Macbeth states, I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which oerleaps itself and falls on th other (I, vii, 25) Macbeth knows that killing is wrong but, his wanting to be king is so strong that he will do anything to become king. Here he is under total control by the witches, we know this because he will not give up his quest to become king. Another example of Macbeth being controlled is when Macbeth says that he will go through with the plan and kill Duncan. He says, I go, and it is done.(II, I, 75) He cant stop himself from wanting to be king, his greed is so strong that he chooses to do wrong and kills Duncan. Here Macbeth is struggling with himself to choose between right and wrong, his evil thoughts overpower his goodness

101 Library Research Day Professor Ramos Blog

101 Library Research Day WordPress Library Research Notes Today we are meeting in the Crafton Library computer room. Librarian Krista Ivy will be teaching us how to research. In the Crafton Hills website go to the library link. Crafton Hills Library Databases You can search for books, ebooks, reference books, and articles. Use the  EBSCO Academic Search Complete  database under interdisciplinary section Find your keywords to search effectively in the databases. Example topic: the rising costs of textbooks Keywords: textbooks, cost, price, course reserves Search the keywords you came up with for your topic. Limit the results to full texts and scholarly. Can also limit the results to current publication date, depending on your topic. Boolean Terms Use the Boolean search terms to help narrow your search results AND, OR, or NOT Read the abstract, summary, and/or introduction of the article you are considering to see if it is useful and relevant to what you are researching. WordPress Sign up for WordPress.com

African-American Vernacular English vs Standard English in Mule Bone

African-American Vernacular English vs Standard English in 'Mule Bone' The Negros universal mimicry is not so much a thing in itself as an evidence of something that permeates his entire self. And that thing is drama. (Hurston, 830) In her own words, Hurston captures the gritty picture she paints in the highly disputed early 20th century drama, Mule Bone, co-written by fellow Harlem renaissance icon Langston Hughes. Mule Bone is set in a fictionalized version of Hurstons hometown, an all black community in Eatonville, Florida where she spent the early years of her teen life living with her father following her mothers death. Hurstons earliest memoirs indicate that the Eatonville of her childhood, much like the Eatonville of the stage, had two churches and no jail. Based on the short story A Bone of Contention which Hurston penned in 1929, Mule Bone draws heavily from Hurstons anthropological work which she compiled from visits to all black communities in the southern United States. Hughes and Hurston collaboratively worked A Bone of Contention into a ru nning dialogue set for the stage, however; this project would eventually tear the two authors apart after discrepancies in the text became insurmountable. As a piece of social criticism, Mule Bone is much like other comedies, however; the high level of diction stemming from what linguistic scholars have recently named African-American vernacular English (AAVE) set a new standard in realism for African-Americans on stage. Standard English (SE) has been studied in volume after volume of deep structure analysis and lexical origins, only recently has AAVE received the same attention in the form of through analysis that SE has enjoyed for years. Researchers have found the main differences between AAVE and SE lie in subtle rule changes. Where AAVE allows for consonant cluster reduction, the absence of the copula, invariant or habitual forms of to be, time reference markers, and multiple negation (Mufwene, 1) SE does not have such allowances. So much of Hurstons voice relies on the accurate portrayal of AAVE. A voice which Holloway describes as recursive; it begins, it names, it activates, it calls us back to a primal ground. (Holloway, 113) Hurston was striving to write a dialogue which, until this point, had been poorly recorded and often stereotyped African-Americans as dim-witted, primitive and wild. In her highly acclaimed anthropological essay Characteristics of Negro Expression, Hurston sums up the realization of a pure black dialect and comments on the unnatural dialogue credited to the Negro so far: If we are to believe the majority of the writers of Negro dialect and the burnt-cork artists, Negro speech is a weird thing, full of ams and Ises. Fortunately we dont have to believe them. We may go directly to the Negro and let him speak for himself. (Hurston, 845-846) Dialect is a term linguists struggle to define as one cannot set firm boundaries around a shapeless, often regional form of speech. Tracing history and the introduction of Africans to America, researchers have roughly sketched out the origins of what is now covered by the umbrella label AAVE. Originally Pidgin French (later known as Creole) and Pidgin English were derived from Portuguese. These languages were spread to West Africa, and the first African-Asian trade involving the west Pacific, including India, China, and later Hawaii, brought the seeds of African-American English all across the globe. Charles S. Johnson, a prominent scholar of African-American English surmised that Negro dialect turns out to be a repository for the seventeenth century speech of the first English colonizers, (Dillard, 39) this theory, along with others that rely on berating African-American culture as the white mans castoff, fell by the wayside as more scientific research was done on the structure of A AVE; revealing the blending of both native tongues and new forms of Pidgin English as the origins of African-American English in the United States. Deeply seeded in the Portuguese origins from which AAVE seems to have stemmed is the fundamental difference most noticeable to most SE speakers. Dillard examines a sentence such as: An so I comin down an she out there blabbin her mouth told my sister I was playin hookey from school. In which, he explains, there are no lexical anomalies from SE, nor any alien forms, although sometimes usage is casual and illiterate, it follows many of the same conventions as does SE. (Dillard, 40) However, it is the syntactical analysis of AAVE that reveals the most information. Dillard points out that an obligatory category in SE: verb tense, can be ignored in what he refers to as, Black English. While it is interesting to peruse these volumes of thoroughly dissected AAVE, it is important to remember Hurston and Hughes goal in penning Mule Bone; the accurate portrayal of the language of life in a racially un-oppressed southern black community. Hurston failed to capture the elusive dialect in perfect written form, insofar as researchers are concerned, as often she substitutes more readily recognizable structures in place of the hard to read, more accurate written compositions, which she could have transcribed from tapes gathered during her anthropological studies. None the less, Hurston and Hughes managed to convey the sounds of AAVE, its subtle inflections and outlandish expressions, which in consideration of the theatrical backdrop Mule Bone enjoyed, remains of higher importance than their choice of spelling. Hughes seems to have played a lesser role in designating the reality of dialogue in Mule Bone as critics have commented on other literary work he published as stale, flat, and spiritless. (Redding, 73) Further examination of his literary track record reveals that as Hughes matured and evolved as a human being, so did his writing. One critics nostalgic view of Hughes reveals the disgust within a literary niche in response to his stronghold on his roots. While Hughess rejection of his own growth shows an admirable loyalty to his self-commitment as the poet of the simple, Negro common-folk the peasant, the laborer, the city slum-dweller, it does a disservice to his art. (Redding, 74) This diehard image of the common black man is the cornerstone of the Mule Bone community, and an important role Hughes facilitated transcribing A Bone of Contention into a feasible piece of dramatic text. Within Mule Bone, concrete examples of Hurston and Hughess regionalized diction are plenteous, the play is written strictly in dialect. Breaking these forms of speech into appropriate categories is essential in an analysis of the text. Hurston reveals in Characteristics of Negro Expression, that the most basic language is one which relies on comparisons, rather than extensive descriptions to elaborate meaning. She supposes the inherent ease of parallelisms as the natural form from which all other descriptive speech is derived. And in doing so, Hurston recognizes African-Americans as the contributors of broad, often natural similes and metaphors, the double descriptive (such as high-tall, little-tee-ninchy, kill-dead), and verbal nouns (such as funeralize, puts the shamery on him, and uglying away) to the English language. (Hurston, 832-833) Mule Bone is packed full of these elements, a few examples of the co-authors awareness to the vivid language associated with similes are as follows: Id beat her till she smell like onions. (Bass, 52) Id stomp her till she rope like okra. (Bass, 52) Id romp her till she slack like lime. (Bass, 52) The first example is self explanatory, however the second and third are a bit more elusive in their meaning. Okra is a non-native English word introduced by African-Americans, one of the dozen or so words researchers formally recognize as African in origin, and refers to a particular kind of vegetable. The meaning is derived from the strings of gooey sap exuded by cooked okra when its eaten. Hurstons simile paints the picture of a beating so severe; one might be left oozing blood. Slack like lime is a term which has apparently fallen by the wayside, as no formal explanation seems to exist. Smell like a nest of yellowhammers was another elusive term, yellowhammers are a type of bird, however; there is little to no evidence that shows any connection between the two. The characters within Mule Bone relate everything to a grounded understanding of their world. Every description involves something physical; a tangible piece of their surroundings that fundamentally represents the implied meaning. As an example, in the opening lines, Hambo retorts that his baldness doesnt matter because he dont want nothin-not even hair-between (he) and God. (Bass, 49) The description of old Brazzles mule lends itself nicely as an example of the physical aspect of everyday speech. He was so skinny you could do a weeks washing on his ribs for a washboard and hang em up on his hip-bones to dry. (Bass, 53) Or, Clarkes description of Daisy a great big mangoa sweet smell, you know, with a strong flavor, but not something you could mash up like a strawberry. Something with a body to it. (Bass, 60) Several languages of West Africa denote the creation of man to a God beating a drum; the shockwaves of each beat resonating throughout mankind. This kind of primal being, a connection with the physical universe, comes to life as Hurston examines this feeling as related to African-American dance, she says: The performer flexes one knee sharply, assumes a ferocious face mask, thrusts the upper part of the body forward with clenched fists, elbows taut as in hard running or grasping a thrusting blade. That is all. Bit the spectator himself adds the picture of ferocious assault, hears the drums and finds himself keeping time with the music and tensing himself for the struggle. It is compelling insinuation. (Hurston, 835) This to Hurston is the embodiment of drama. Fundamentally, Hurston feels as though African-Americans are drama. She feels as though each aspect of the Negro life is dramatized, lifted above the mundane, and enacted, not lived. In conclusion, studying the development of AAVE in conjunction with the changing social atmosphere of the Harlem renaissance and the conversion of Hurstons short story to a dramatic work, has greatly increased the significance of the text as a piece of self-proclamation for the African-American in the early 20th century. The combination of Hurstons anthropological experience and Hughess steadfast hold on his culture reaches new heights in the realization of a true to life representation of African-American life. Place was important to Zora Neale Hurston-she would spend most of her adult life in search of a place she could claim as her own-one that would support, with fervor equal to hers, her cultural nationalism, that would respect the legacies represented in the voices that she recorded-voices that evidenced the traditions of the world. (Holloway, 113) Holloway touches upon an important conclusion one comes to in viewing Mule Bone as a text among many others. Hurston and Hughes strove to find a place among the Zekes of The Octoroon and the Jupiters of Poes The Gold Bug, and succeeded wildly. The dialect of each character in Mule Bone lends itself to the subtle twisting and careful crafting applied by the co-authors. In a way, Hurston and Hughes celebrate themselves in the colorful use of dialect. To close, Holloway sums up the atmosphere one gets a feel for with this use of dialect, she says, (it) speaks of the primacy of the word, the instrumentation of literary talent and the metaphorical adornment of a culture that recaptures myth on its tongue and uses the adornment to represent itself as black. (Holloway, 115) Works Cited Bass, George Hurston, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston: Mule Bone: A comedy of Negro Life. New York: Perennial, 1991. Dillard, J.L.. Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States. New York: Random House, 1972. Holloway, Karla F.C., ed. The Character of the Word: The Texts of Zora Neale Hurston. New York: Greenwood Press, 1987. Hurston, Zora Neale. Characteristics of Negro Expression. Wall, Cheryl A., comp. Zora Neale Hurston: Folklore, memoirs, and other writings. New York: The Library of America, 1995. Mufwene, Salikoko S., John R. Rickford, Guy Bailey, John Baugh, eds. African-American English: Structure, history and use. London: Routledge, 1998. Redding, Saunders. Old Forms, New Rhythms, New Words. Mullen, Edward J., comp. Critical Essays on Langston Hughes. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1986.

Citizens and globalization Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Citizens and globalization - Term Paper Example Globalization can also be said to be as the intensification of the worldwide social activities which has been linked to economic and social activities of the economies (MacGillivray, 2006). The goal of globalization is to provide business world an utmost competitive advantage while having low operating cost to gain worldwide consumers, goods and services. Globalisation uses the diversification phenomenon for the use of resources. It is a strategy that provides a long range of products and services. It enables businesses to compete worldwide by diversification because it includes risk reduction in international trade. It promotes economic growth and performance for a nation. Looking at these factors it can be said that the people around the world do not resist globalisation. It is not a new factor even it has an economic roots i.e. international trade, finance, migration and ideology. The people as the members of the society as the consumers should behave positively with respect to globalization as this gives them the advantage to have a varity of goods and services from around the world (Ilmberger & Robinson, 2002). Globalization also involves innovation due to the commercialization of national technology across international boundaries that is high tech products (includes all electronic, electrical products etc.), all this helps consumers to have better goods and services and take the advantage of technology which is not available locally. Globalisation boosts international travel and tourism indirectly due to the international business. Immigration between countries, formation of free trade zones, growth of cross cultural contacts, enhancement in worldwide culture etc. is increasing due to the globalisation. This is leading to the improvement in the cultural and business practices of the nations and developing people and their business. As the consumer the people are getting advantage of getting different products and services which they have

Applied business research-week 9 and week 10 Essay

Applied business research-week 9 and week 10 - Essay Example Salary depends on age and years since they are within the .05 significance level. However, it does not depend on beauty. Hence, beauty is an irrelevant factor in salary determination and can as well be eliminated. Age is normally distributed since its skewness is .362 while its kurtosis is 3.49. Moreover, years is normally distributed since its skewness is .348 while its kurtosis is .536. similarly, beauty is normally distributed as it has a skewness of -.004 and kurtosis is .480 values that are close to zero. 7. The R2 is .184. This value indicates the proportion of variance in the salary_2 that can be explained by beauty, years and age in the model. Apparently, beauty, years and age, which are the independent variables, explain 18.4% of the variability of salary_2, which is the dependent variable. 9. Age and years are significant coefficients as their p value is less than .05. Every increase of an average of 1 year in the number of years that a woman is a model is associated with 0.9% increase in

My Addiction to Sugar Essay -- Sugar Addiction Study and Intervention

INTRODUCTION Sugar is considered a toxic poison. Sugar leaches the calcium out of the skeletal frame of a human’s body. Sugar literally sucks the calcium straight from our bones; therefore it is known to many as a â€Å"skeletal poisonous powder.† There are thousands of individuals struggling throughout the United States with sugar addiction. Sugar is a leading cause of a number of health-related issues. Sugar causes health issues such as, fibromyalgia, diabetes, obesity, and osteoporosis. Like me, many individuals have no clue that they are addicted to sugar. Up until this single subject design, I thought my eating habits were quite normal. I honestly did not realize how much sugar I was taking in everyday. This single subject design has truly encouraged me to live a healthier lifestyle. The purpose of this study is to indirectly determine my sugar intake, by counting calories daily and reducing my caloric intake. LITERATURE REVIEW â€Å"Sugar addiction is a rapidly growing epidemic (Teitelbaum, 2010).† According to researchers, on average an individual consumes one-hundred pounds of sugar each year. Americans spend billions of dollars a year on gym memberships, healthy foods and beverages, and exercise equipment. Despite the economic strain, Americans continue to make room in their budgets for weight loss products. Exercising makes individuals feel healthier inside and out. Feeling healthier could possibly alter a person’s desire to eat healthier. Although exercise cannot cure a sugar addiction it could take one’s mind off eating sweets. Another benefit of exercising is the possibility of curving the urge for sugar. When an individual is hungry it makes their will power to resist sugar more difficult. Feeding ... ...9). Different in prevalence of obesity among black, white, and Hispanic adults-United States, 2006-2008. Morb. Mort. Weekly. Rep. 58, 740-744. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Ogden, C. L., & Curtin, L. R. (2010). Prevalence and trends in obesity among U.S. adults, 1999-2008. Journal of Medical Association. 303, 235-241. Hyman, Mark. (2014). Sweet poison: How sugar, not cocaine, is one of the most addictive and dangerous substances. Daily News. Available at: www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/white-poison-danger-sugar-beat-article-1.1605232 (Accessed on 10 February 2014). James, D. C. S. (2013). Weight loss strategies used by African American women: possible implications for tailored messages. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 26, 71-77. Teitelbaum, Jacob. (2010). Sweet Relief. Better Nutrition Healthy Handbook. August 2010. 28-29.

Frankenstein †Golden Mean Archetype Essay

Throughout the last few chapters we have been reading, the perspective of our monster has shifted tremendously. At first, we viewed the creature as frightening and menacing. As the story continues, we base our view on the monster due to Victor’s aggressive behavior towards the creature, making us pity the poor monster as he has done nothing wrong; he is just lost in a new world, possibly experiencing culture shock. Now the creature is venturing out into the world, interacting with people other than Victor. â€Å"†¦for I never ventured abroad during daylight, fearful of meeting with the same treatment I had formerly endured in the first village which I entered† (106). After the monster encounters humans, people give the same reaction: fear. The monster comes baring no harm, but in fright, the citizens of the village run from him, scared of what might happen to them. This starts his increasing grudge against the humans. First, Victor rejects his appearance, oblivious to the being on the inside, now, complete strangers are neglecting him. His temper in steadily growing. â€Å"Was man, indeed, at once so powerful, so virtuous and magnificent, yet so vicious and base?† (107). After learning more history from his protectors, the creature is now questioning the characteristic change in man over the course of time. Back then, a creature of his nature might have been accepted, but now he is feared for his sole appearance. These events capture the imbalance in the golden mean because now the monster, once emotionally stable with his existence, is getting too angry and furious with the human race. The monster is now resembling Victor. Although he might not notice it, the monster is showing a strong connection between him and his creator through his actions. Both are seeking revenge and acting out through their anger. Now that the monster has built up the courage to confront the old blind man, by the name of De Lacy, he waits until Felix, Agatha, and Safie have left. He does not want to frighten them. Unfortunately, as he tries to speak with De Lacy, Felix and the others return. Upon Agatha fainting, and Safie running out of fear, â€Å"Felix darted forward, and with supernatural force tore me from this father, whose knees I cung; in a transport of fry, he dashed me to the ground and struck me violently with a stick† (123-124). The creature viewed the family and his own: his protectors. If they acted that way towards him, surely everyone else would too. Now, the monster’s revenge only increased. Soon enough, the creature is going to snap and lose control of his emotions. There is still some decency inside of the monster though. After witnessing an innocent girl downing, he saves her, despite his arising hate for humans. As a man comes and thinks that the monster is harming the girl, he shoots the creature, who had only tried to help. â€Å"The feelings of kindness and gentleness which I had entertained but a few moments before gave place to hellish rage and gnashing of teeth. Inflamed by pain, I vowed eternal hatred and vengeance to all mankind† (130). The spark inside of the monster triggers and rage flows through his body. Anger and revenge seep in and he now despises all human beings. The creature has terminated all tolerance for human beings, due to the everlasting hate he obtains from creatures so very similar to him. The golden mean has been violated extensively through the mistreatment of this poor creature. He has been nothing but joyous towards mankind, but in return he receives hate and pain, literally. The monster has no more patience or hope for the overturning emotions from humans. This eventually develops the motive for William’s murder, confessing to Victor the deviant act of not only the murder, but also of framing Justine.

Hpv Vaccine, The Cochrane Library, And Google Scholar

The literature search for this review was conducted using several databases including CINAHL, PubMed, the Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar. Search terms included â€Å" human papillomavirus vaccine†, â€Å" human papillomavirus†, â€Å"HPV†, â€Å" human papillomavirus safety and effectiveness†, â€Å"human papillomarvirus vaccination rates†, â€Å"HPV randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews†. Since licensure of the HPV vaccine in 2006, HPV vaccine coverage among US adolescents has increased but remains low compared with other recommended vaccines. Studies show that the influence of accurate information about vaccines is maximized when conveyed from provider to parent or patient and for parents, healthcare providers such as physicians or†¦show more content†¦In response to this serious health issue, more than 20 years of incremental research culminated in the development of HPV vaccines that elicit strong immunoge nic reactions without the risk of causing infection. A review of the literature has revealed that persistent infection with an oncogenic strain of HPV is the known cause of cervical cancer and of the 40 HPV types that affect the genital area, at least 15 types are known to be oncogenic or cancer causative (Armstrong, 2010). Based on clinical trials, HPV vaccination is effective against the occurrence of precancerous lesions and according to Armstrong (2010), studies of the quadrivalent HPV vaccine revealed a 98% protection against high-grade precancerous lesions, whereas for bivalent HPV vaccine 93% efficacy has been demonstrated in females to HPV 16 and 18 who completed the 3-dose vaccine series prior to engaging in any type of sexual actitivities. Cook et al (2010), acknowledges that there is no research available on long term efficiency of vaccines and also not everyone who initiates the vaccine series completes all 3 doses or completes all doses in the recommended 6-month ti me frame; this noncompliance and

Tracking Ability Grouping - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 24 Words: 7291 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Teaching Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Learning Essay Student Essay Did you like this example? The Effects Of Tracking/Ability Grouping On All Levels Of Students Abstract The research detailed in this paper provides a systematic description and analysis of classroom grouping practices in primary and secondary schools in England. Practices are compared to main findings in developmental and educational literature with regard to effective contexts for learning and recent ideas about pedagogy. The research is based on an analysis of 4924 pupil groupings from 672 Reception, Year 2 and Year 5 classes in 331 primary schools and 248 Year 7 and Year 10 classes in 47 secondary schools. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Tracking Ability Grouping" essay for you Create order The data came from ‘classroom mapping questionnaires’ that were completed by teachers at a particular point in the school. Completed questionnaires provided information about the nature and use of pupil groupings within their classrooms and focused on the number and size of groupings, type of working interaction between pupils, the presence of adults, grouping composition and the type of task that groupings were engaged with. Results showed that there were changes in grouping practices with pupil age. As pupils increased in age they were increasingly likely to experience whole class ability based sets (tracking) for core curriculum subjects and more formal row/pair seating arrangements. Chapter One: Introduction Statement of the Problem All pupils in schools are grouped in some form or another. At a school level, pupils are organised into classrooms on the basis of decisions about age and ability mix (Dean, 1992; Dreeben, 1984). Classes can be viewed as nested contexts within a school ( Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and within classrooms there are further nested contexts. Within the classroom the teacher is responsible for making decisions regarding these units or nested contexts for instruction and learning, that is, the unit to which learning tasks and working interactions are co-ordinated. This unit we have termed the ‘grouping’ and it can consist of anything from a single pupil to a whole class of pupils. There are many possible grouping contexts and each has different implications for pupils’ learning. Groupings can be of different sizes and compositions, and can vary in the amount of adult support they receive, the curricula and tasks they are given and the degree and quality of interaction between pupils. Decisions on the groupings to use for particular learning purposes should be partly dependent on the pupils themselves. The way children respond to the grouping contexts the teacher sets up and the interactive and learning benefits pupils take from them will depend on the skills and knowledge that they bring to these contexts. Of course, these skills and understandings will vary not only between pupils but also over time within pupils. During the 12 years that children spend in US schools, between the ages of 4 and 16, large and dramatic developments are apparent in childrens social, cognitive and communication skills. Thus particular combinations of grouping structure, learning task, working interaction and adult assistance may be more, or less, supportive of learning and development at different points in childhood. A pedagogic approach to the teaching of, and learning by, pupils of different ages must take account of these interactions b etween grouping and learning. Previous studies have provided clear findings but they have not examined classroom groupings in any great depth and do not systematically examine within-class grouping practices relative to the age (or learning needs) of children. They have tended to focus exclusively on either infant or junior classrooms (and not on secondary classrooms—11–16 years) and thus do not consider grouping contexts in relation to childrens development or consider how teachers treat children differently at different ages. This paper therefore seeks to examine groupings used within primary and secondary school classrooms in terms of a number of core dimensions and further to analyse them in relation to the effective practices suggested by developmental and educational research. The five core dimensions examined are: the size and number of groupings in the class; the working arrangement between grouping members; adult support of groupings; grouping composition; and the curriculum area and task type undertaken by the grouping. Purpose of the study This paper aims to provide a naturalistic and multidimensional description, in terms of the five core dimensions, of the nature of grouping practices as employed in primary and secondary school classrooms. Changes in grouping practices with pupil age will also be examined relative to the practices reported by teachers of Reception, Year 2 and Year 5 classes at the primary school level and teachers of Year 7 and Year 10 classes, at the secondary school level. A further aim is to consider how the description relates to developmental research and theory about the conditions for effective learning. Research Questions What are the effects of tracking/ability grouping on all levels of students? Significance Of Study The current study goes beyond previous work by exploring the nature of the grouping context in relation to learning task, working interaction and adult involvement across d ifferent year groups in primary and secondary schools. In contrast to other papers in this volume, this study is deliberately descriptive of current practice. The study is informed by an ecological view of classroom life and current ideas concerning a pedagogic approach to teaching and learning. Chapter Two: Review of literature Galton and Williamsons (1992) review identified four distinct types of classroom groupings: individuals, pairs, small and large groups and whole class. Yet their existence does not mean that teachers effectively co-ordinate their teaching and learning tasks with them. Research has examined the educational implications of grouping size for effective learning ( Kutnick, 1994) and emphasises that small groups are the most effective for learning ( Lou et al., 1996). However, this research did not relate grouping size to child development and has not examined actual grouping sizes used in classrooms. The number of groupings found in a classroom at any one time also has implications for the learning activity and adult involvement but has not been considered fully in relation to the age of pupils. An analysis of grouping size and number is also important in relation to the working arrangements of the grouping and the task that is undertaken. A central consideration in the nature and us e of groupings is the type of working arrangement between members of the grouping. A range of working arrangement types in classrooms has been described as: individualised work (children work on unique individual tasks designed for their specific needs); individuated work (children work on the same task but are expected to work alone); individuated work with talk (children work on the same task, are expected to do the work alone but are allowed to talk); peer interactive work (children either work on separate sub-components of one task or work together on a single task with a shared goal); and work with a teacher either as a whole class or as a group (Bennett Dunne, 1992; Galton Williamson 1992; Kutnick Rogers, 1994). The research literature on the ‘science’ of teaching and learning highlight the potential of different types of working interactions for learning. Piagetian, Vygotskyan, and socio-cultural theories have prompted much research into individual, adult-c hild and peer interactions in equal (cooperative and collaborative) and unequal (peer tutoring) relations. The general view is that learning is more likely and deeper when pupils are actively engaged in learning. Learning is often more active when pupils work in a shared social context involving interaction with others, whether with an adult or other pupils, rather than when working alone or just listening to the teacher (Wood, 1998; Rogoff, 1990; Doise Mugny, 1984; Topping, 1994; Forman Cazden, 1985; Slavin, 1990; Johnson Johnson, 1987; Tolmie, Howe, Duchak, Rattray, 1998). Research suggests that from at least 6 to 7 years children can begin to engage in and benefit from ‘collaborative’ interaction, though younger children do engage in social learning through co-ordination and cooperation as well as imitation and instructed learning (Azmitia Perlmutter, 1989; Tomasello, Kruger, Ratner, 1993). Collaborative interaction requires the use of cognitive skills, pers pective taking and particular conversational skills to compare others perspectives with ones own ( Baines, 1996; Miller, 1987; Piaget (1928, trans. 1959); Tomasello et al., 1993). Theorists and researchers from a Vygotskyan and socio-cultural tradition emphasise that interaction with others is productive prior to the age 6–7 years and they usually focus on interactions between a child and more able other (adult or child) ( Rogoff, 1990; Hogan Tudge, 1999) and peer interactive contexts where children scaffold each others learning, engage in the co-construction and elaboration of ideas or give and receive help ( Forman Cazden, 1985; Forman, 1992; Webb, 1989). These interaction types may be described as interactants co-ordinating and co-operating in interaction rather than being specifically collaborative ( Baines, 1996; Tomasello et al., 1993). There are indications that, for interactive group-work, smaller grouping sizes may be more suited to younger children or children with limited communication skills (Baines, 1996; Fuchs et al., 2000; Smith, 1994). Younger children will not have the conversational strategies, confidence or experience to enable them to easily interact in large groups. Large and even small group situations make it difficult for children to co-ordinate the taking of turns in conversation and keep interruptions to a minimum, unless regulated by an adult or more able other who can help them stay on one topic ( Dorval Eckerman, 1984). Moreover, in situations where children are expected to plan and organise their interactions, large groupings will make this very difficult. By contrast, dyadic and triadic groupings provide a simpler context within which children can develop many of the conversational and social-cognitive strategies needed for interacting in larger groups. These contexts also reduce the ‘risk’ ( Doyle, 1980) to self esteem that is central to increasing the effectiveness of group work (see Blatchford, Kutnic k, Baines, Galton, this volume). There are, of course, settings where individual work is necessary and more productive than group-work ( Howe, Duchak-Tanner, Tolmie, 2000; Murphy Messer, 1998) allowing children time to reflect on ideas and knowledge. These situations may be used to prepare for group work or to accommodate thinking after group work. In classroom settings, small groupings may be more effective when pupils are expected to interact on a task (Bosert et al., 1985; Nasasti Clements, 1991). On the other hand, a few large groups may allow more control of behaviour and attention as well as enable the targeting of guidance and support. Equally, from a management point of view lots of small groupings may prove unwieldy for teachers, particularly when pupils have difficulties working together on tasks. However, there is little information available on relationships between working interaction type and group size relations at different points in pupils’ education. The composition of groupings may have implications for teaching and learning. From a teaching perspective, homogenous ability grouping is efficient but may not be as beneficial for pupils’ learning. Most experimental research has focused on whether grouping members should be of similar or mixed ability. During peer interaction, the process of cognitive conflict, which theory suggests underlies collaborative group work, requires a difference in perspective and ability (Doise Mugny, 1984; Piaget (1928, trans. 1959)). Furthermore, peer tutoring requires a large difference in ability ( Rogoff, 1990; Vygotsky, 1978). However, similar ability peers may be able to scaffold each other during interaction ( Forman Cazden, 1985). Webb (1989), in her research on peer helping, recommends a compromise position such that high and middle ability pupils work together and low and middle ability pupils work together. This strategy overcomes the common problem of high ability pupils becomin g annoyed with having to help low ability pupils, while maintaining differences in perspectives and knowledge to support learning such that pupils of all ability levels benefit. Homogenous ability grouping within classes is currently recommended by school inspectors in England and Wales ( OFSTED, 1995), despite a scarcity of research into the effectiveness of this form of grouping ( Hallam Toutounji, 1996). Setting classes by ability is becoming ever more prevalent in US primary schools and has been the norm for pupils above 13 years of age in secondary schools despite evidence emphasising negative social, emotional and academic outcomes ( Benn Chitty, 1996; Hallam Toutounji, 1996). Yet little is known about its incidence in primary schools or the prevalence of within-class ability grouping in primary and secondary schools. Adult support of groupings is essential with regard to guidance, instruction and support for learning, but also from a practical point of view in terms of effective management of behaviour and attention. The existence of an adult in a group will affect interactions between pupils and thus may be highly inappropriate under certain task and interactive activities. Theoretically driven research highlights the beneficial effects of an adult scaffolding an individuals learning but holds little faith in the support or instruction of larger groupings where a teacher must know about, and adjust their teaching to, all children in their class (Tharp Gallimore, 1991; Wood Wood, 1996). When taught as a whole class, pupils will vary in their ability and learning needs, even when placed in classes ‘set’ by ability (where pupils are re-organised into new classes for one or more curriculum area on the basis of similarity in ability—also known as tracking in the US), and thus direct whole class teaching can be difficult. This is further compounded by the possibility that not all pupils will be actively engaged all of the time. Re search by Galton and colleagues also illustrates the unfeasibility of adults scaffolding pupils’ learning. They found that while teachers spend most of their time interacting with pupils, each pupil on average received no more than 10 min of focused teacher attention and support per day (Galton, Simon, Croll (1980) and Galton, Hargreaves, Comber, Wall, Pell (1999). Adult support may be more important with younger children as they may have difficulties remaining on-task or working independently as a group or alone, and may need guidance for the learning and elaboration of new knowledge and concepts. Despite the crucial nature of adult deployment in relation to the groupings used in classrooms, little research has examined adult support of groupings of different sizes and compositions and in relation to different curricula and tasks and across different year groups. However, teachers report that small groupings are preferable as they allow better quality input from an adul t, allow better quality work from pupils, are better for pupils’ concentration, and are more manageable generally (Blatchford, Baines, Kutnick, Martin, 2001a). But in large classes teachers feel driven to reduce the number of groupings and thus increase the size of groupings for ease of management and control. Finally, the nature of the curriculum area and task that groupings work on is a key component of an analysis of the effective use of groupings. Particular curriculum subject cultures may lead to different teaching and learning practices (Goodson Managan, 1995). Yet if activities are not appropriate to the particular type of grouping arrangement, then learning may be ineffective or threatening ( Bossert, Barnett, Filby, 1985; Doyle, 1983; Galton Williamson, 1992). Currently, in the US, it is suggested that in the ‘literacy hour’ different activities are conducted at the same time when pupils are working in groups. This may allow teachers to target the ir support to particular groupings but this has implications for the complexity of task types given to other groups where no adult support is available. This may be particularly problematic with young children that are less able to work independently. The type of task undertaken has been conceived across many different dimensions (Alexander, Schallert, Hare, 1991; Bloom, 1956; Norman, 1978; Pica, Kanagy, Falodun, 1993). Norman (1978) suggested that tasks could either introduce new ideas, procedures or skills; demand that an individual discovers ideas; require the practising of new skills on familiar problems; require the application of old knowledge/skills to new areas or problems; or revise or recap knowledge/skill. In the experimental research literature there are clear indications that different types of task are more suited to different types of grouping and adult support of groupings ( Kutnick, 1994). For example, the learning of new skills and procedural knowledge may be best conducted by a tutor ( Howe et al., 2000; Rogoff, 1990); practice tasks may be better suited to working alone with adult support to clarify problems or as a whole class ( Jackson Kutnick, 1996); tasks involving the application of skills to new areas may be best suited to collaborative group working situations as individuals have already honed the necessary skills but need to develop new conceptual understandings ( Howe et al., 2000). There is also an indication that the task needs to encourage ambiguity ( Doyle, 1980), whether in terms of outcome or process, in order to be effective for group work. Different tasks may be evident at different age levels, especially as during the early years children are learning and developing new skills and knowledge. Bennett et al. (1984) found that tasks used in infant classrooms primarily involved the practising of skills. Few studies have examined the types of tasks that are given to different types of groupings in primary and secondary cl assrooms. If teachers are to be effective in their use of grouping strategies, they must be aware of the potential for learning and have the ability to co-ordinate task types with groupings in their classrooms. Chapter Three: Methods Research Design and Data Collection This paper aims to provide a naturalistic and multidimensional description, in terms of the five core dimensions, of the nature of grouping practices as employed in primary and secondary school classrooms. Changes in grouping practices with pupil age will also be examined relative to the practices reported by teachers of Reception, Year 2 and Year 5 classes at the primary school level and teachers of Year 7 and Year 10 classes, at the secondary school level. A further aim is to consider how the description relates to developmental research and theory about the conditions for effective learning. Analysis of Data The data used in this paper come from three separately funded but parallel studies that used the same methodology. One project, the Primary Classroom Groupings Project, examined grouping practices in Year 2 (6–7 years) and Year 5 (9–10 years) classrooms. The focus of the second study was on the effects of class size on pupil learning experiences and involved data on grouping practices in Reception (4–5 years) classes. The third study examined grouping practices in secondary schools (11–12 years and 14–15 years). All three projects involved the use of a ‘grouping mapping questionnaire’ to collect quantitative data on the nature of groupings as used in classes at a specified time and day. This paper only reports part of the total data collected—other articles summarise other sections of the data (Blatchford et al., 2001a; Kutnick et al., 2002; Blatchford, Kutnick, Clark, McIntyre, Baines, 2001b). The grouping mapping questionnaire On an assigned day and sample time in the lesson, teachers were asked to make a quick note (on a predrawn map of their classroom) of the location of individual male and female pupils, the grouping that they were part of, the curriculum and task that groupings were working on, and the nature of the working interaction the grouping was engaged in. The teacher also noted the location of the adults working in the classroom. Later, at a convenient moment, teachers completed a questionnaire where they elaborated on the classroom map and provided further information on the class and themselves (such as whether the class was set by ability and class size). The advantage of this approach is that it utilises the benefits of a large scale questionnaire and an observational approach while avoiding many of the difficulties associated with these methods, such as the lack of detail and expense respectively. The grouping questionnaire completed by Reception class teachers was a simplified version of the questionnaire used with teachers of Years 2, 5, 7 and 10. Sample The primary classroom groupings project Schools were contacted across 5 participating Local Education Authorities (LEAs). Of these 5 LEAs, 3 covered sub-urban areas in the south of England and 2 covered inner city areas, one in the South and o ne in the North West of England. LEAs with schools in rural areas were not approached because of the strong likelihood of mixed age classes which would have required further detailed analyses in areas that the project had not set out to address. Schools in the 4 LEAs in the south of England were contacted prior to sending questionnaires and schools in the fifth LEA were sent questionnaires directly. Teachers were asked to complete the questionnaires at a set time (one of five possibilities), on a particular day (Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday) during weeks when they were not overburdened (i.e. weeks where Standard Assessment Tasks and OFSTED inspections were taking place and the first and last weeks of term were avoided). Times were selected to avoid school assembly, break-times and the lunch hour. Returned questionnaires were evenly distributed across the five completion times. Just less than half of the schools approached agreed to participate in the project and over half of th ese returned questionnaires. From the 111 schools that participated, 187 teachers returned questionnaires. About half of these teachers were of Year 2 classes and half taught Year 5 classes. Some teachers taught mixed age classes (always consisting of pupils from one year above or below), although all had a predominance of Year 2 or 5 pupils. Over 1000 groupings were described in the questionnaires of the 187 classes and there was a fairly even contribution from both Year 2 and 5 classes. The class size project: Reception class data on grouping practices In the class size study, questionnaires were completed at 10:00 a.m. on a specified day of the week. Questionnaires were returned by 485 Reception class teachers (from 220 schools which were randomly sampled from 8 LEAs). These questionnaires provided data on over 2000 groupings. Further information on this project can be found in Blatchford, Moriarty, Edmonds, and Martin (2002) and Blatchford et al. (2001a). Grouping pract ices in secondary schools project The grouping practices in secondary schools project involved 47 schools in the collection of classroom mapping data, 36 were mixed sex schools, nine were all-girl schools and two were all-boy schools. Questionnaires were returned from 128 Year 7 and 120 Year 10 classes which were spread equally across the four subject areas of English, Mathematics, Science, and Humanities. Teachers were asked to complete questionnaires either towards the start, in the middle or towards the end of the lesson. Percentages of questionnaires returned were in the proportions 20%, 54% 26%, for the different timings of the lesson respectively; very close in number to those sent out. These questionnaires provided data on 1767 groupings. Further information on this project can be found in Blatchford et al. (2001b). Chapter Four: Results Results were analysed using Chi-square, Spearmans correlation and, where appropriate, ANOVA with Tukey hsd post hoc tests. This section will briefly consider class level contextual data before examining the data on within-class groupings. While many comparisons between core dimensions are possible, here we have focused only on those that are relevant to changes in grouping practices over the years of primary and secondary school (see Blatchford, Baines, Kutnick, Martin (2001a) and Blatchford, Kutnick, Clark, McIntyre, Baines (2001b); Kutnick et al., 2002, for further analyses). Streaming and setting classes by ability All Reception classes and the vast majority of Years 2 and 5 classes were of mixed ability. Not one single class was streamed (i.e. where pupils are allocated to a class where they are taught all subjects on the basis of ability) and only a quarter of classes experienced any form of ‘setting’. Year 5 classes were more likely to be set by ability w here as many as 44% were set for a subject compared to only 6% of Year 2 classes (?2(1)=35.98;p0.001). Setting was mainly for Mathematics or Mathematics and English—only once was it found for English alone. However, only 18% of Year 5 classes actually worked as a set when the questionnaire was completed. At the secondary school level setting was much more frequent. At Year 7, 42% of classes were set by ability and this increased to 70% by Year 10 (?2(4)=20.38;p0.001). Setting at Year 7 was primarily for Mathematics and Science where approximately 50% of classes were set by ability and 35% of classes studying English and Humanities (e.g. History, Geography, Art) were set. At Year 10 setting was even more prevalent for English, Mathematics and Science (69%, 100% and 83% respectively) but much less likely for Humanities subjects (19%) (?2(3)=48.40;p0.001). Classroom seating and working arrangements Small group seating was the predominant classroom layout at both Year 2 and 5 levels (59%) (this was not coded at the Reception level). However, there were differences between Year 2 and 5 classrooms in the next most popular class layout (?2(3)=25.0;p0.001). While at Year 2 there was more large group seating than at Year 5 (37% vs 14% respectively), at Year 5 there was more traditional row/pair class seating (0% vs 15% respectively). By secondary school, pair and row seating was the predominant classroom layout (67% at Year 7 and 75% at Year 10) with the remaining classrooms having layouts consisting of a combination of small, large, row and paired seating. Number and size of groupings within classrooms The average number of groupings in classes increased with pupil age. Typically, Reception classes contained fewer groupings than Year 2 classes, and Year 2 classes fewer than Years 5, 7 and 10 (F(4,915)=28.9; p0.001). By contrast, groupings decreased in size with age, with Reception and Year 2 children working in the largest groupings and Year 7 and 1 0 pupils working in the smallest (F(4,4902)=61.5; p0.001). Grouping composition Group composition varied across the age groups (?2(4)=433;p0.001). While pupils of all ages, even Reception, were most likely to be in similar ability groupings, by Year 10 this had reached the point where virtually all pupils were grouped according to similarity in ability. The levels of low and middle ability groupings remained fairly constant across all year groups but during the secondary stage, levels of high ability groupings increased and mixed ability grouping decreased. Curriculum area and task type Age differences were evident in the types of task given to pupils (?2(12)=2913;p0.001). In Reception and Year 2 classrooms, practice and revision tasks were the most common task type while in secondary classrooms pupils were most likely to be working on tasks involving the application of existing knowledge. There was an equal balance between these two task types at Year 5. Thus, as pupil age increased, groupings were more likely to be given tasks where they were expected to apply their existing knowledge to new areas and less likely to be practising or revising their skills. Tasks involving the introduction of new knowledge remained relatively constant over primary and secondary school levels. Working interaction type in relation to grouping size Both the primary (Years 2 and 5 only) and secondary school data show that working alone was common in all group sizes except groupings of 11 or more and in large groupings at the secondary school stage . In primary classrooms, peer interactive work was most often conducted in small groups but, proportionally, dyads and triads were more likely to involve peer interactive work than other types of working arrangement (?2(10)=4231;p0.001). At the secondary level, individuated work was most often experienced in pairs and, proportionally, triads and small groups were more likely to be associated with peer interaction than o ther working arrangements (?2(10)=6102;p0.001). At both primary and secondary school stages, groups of 11 or more pupils (usually whole classes) were most likely to be listening to and interacting with the teacher than other group sizes. Adult presence in relation to the number and size of groupings The relationship between the number and size of groups and adult presence is revealing about the effect adult support has on the organisation of the class, the way teachers allocate their time among the groupings, and the function of different grouping sizes. The number of adults in classes increased with the number of groupings at Reception (r=0.36;n=476;p0.001) and Year 2 (r=0.24;n=92;p0.05) but not at Years 5, 7 or 10. At both primary and secondary school levels, adults were most likely to be present with very large groupings and large groups of 7–10 (Primary—?2(5)=3772;p0.001; Secondary—?2(5)=4558;p0.001). Small groups, triads and especially dyads were leas t likely to have an adult present and were thus the main grouping size where pupils work independently. However, as age increased adults were decreasingly likely to support individuals (?2(4)=128.9;p0.001). Thus in Reception classes individual pupils were more likely to have an adult present than not, but by the Secondary stage very few individuals, dyads, triads, small or large groups were supported by an adult. Task type in relation to grouping size In primary classrooms most types of learning task were conducted in small groups and thus there was no distinct relationship between grouping size and task type. However, some trends are apparent if the data are looked at within rather than across grouping sizes. At the Reception level, large groupings of 7–10 pupils were proportionally more likely to be engaged on tasks involving the introduction of new information (?2(15)=1463;p0.001). At Years 2 and 5, dyads were more likely to work on tasks involving the application of skills than other task types and very large groupings were most likely to be gaining new knowledge than working on other task types (?2(15)=691.3;p0.001). The findings at the secondary school stage indicate a clearer relationship between task type and grouping size (?2(15)=884.9;p0.001). Groupings of 11 or more pupils were most likely to be working on tasks involving the introduction of new knowledge. The application of existing knowledge was most connected to dyads (the most common grouping size at this level) but also small groups. Practice and revision tasks were most often conducted in dyads and very large groupings involving 11 or more pupils. Working interaction type in relation to curriculum area Data relating curriculum area to working interaction type at primary (Years 2 and 5 only) and secondary school levels are consistent. Science was the main curriculum area where pupils worked together as groups and this was least likely in Mathematics. English, at the primar y school level, rarely involved children working together but was increasingly likely to involve peer interaction at the secondary stage (?2(6)=703.9;p0.001). Mathematics most often involved whole class interaction and individual work at primary and secondary stages. Working interaction type in relation to task type data at both the primary (Years 2 and 5 only) and secondary school stages show that no single interaction type was used for a particular type of learning task. At the primary school level, working alone was used for all types of task. However, pupils in primary classrooms were slightly more likely to be working alone on practice and revision tasks. When pupils at this level worked together on a task this most often involved the application of existing knowledge, and when engaged as a class interacting with the teacher this often involved the gaining of new knowledge. At the secondary school stage, the patterns were similar but clearer. Working alone was most likel y to involve the practice and revision of knowledge and other task types; peer interaction was associated with the application of existing knowledge and teacher-class interaction for the gaining new knowledge. Adult presence in relation to task type Although adult presence decreased with age there were some persistent patterns across the different year groups in terms of the data on the relation between adult presence and task type At all ages, adults were most likely to be present during tasks involving the development of new knowledge and skills (?2(3)=926.5;p0.001). Teachers were also least likely to be present when pupils were applying existing knowledge and skills to new areas except at Reception level. Chapter Five: Conclusions Conclusion This paper examined the relationships between the age of pupils and the grouping practices employed by teachers within classrooms in primary and secondary schools. The findings reveal some interesting ways in which classroom organisation and grouping practices change over primary and secondary schooling. It is perhaps of little surprise that pupils were increasingly likely to experience more formal teaching and learning situations from Key Stage 2 (children aged between 7 and 11 years) onwards, seen in terms of a greater organisation of classes by ability into sets, particularly for Literacy/English and Numeracy/Mathematics, and row and pair seating arrangements and the reduced use of seating in groups. Primary school teachers most often used small groups but from Year 5 they used dyads increasingly. Primary teachers decreasingly used large groups of 7–10 pupils and secondary school teachers made greater use of very large groupings of 11+ pupils. In all clas srooms, individuated work was the predominant working arrangement for groupings. Primary age pupils rarely worked together, though small group seating was the most frequent furniture arrangement, but rather engaged in individuated work. As pupils got older, and specifically between primary and secondary schooling, they were more likely to experience whole class interactions with the teacher and peer interactive work, and were less likely to experience individuated work. A key finding was that the number of adults present in classes decreased as pupils got older. Primary classrooms often had additional adults present to support pupils yet by the secondary school stage this was rare. Grouping composition varied with pupil age, though only slightly. The high incidence of homogenous ability grouping was surprising, particularly in the early years of primary schooling, and there was only a slight increase in prevalence at Year 10. The main type of task pupils engaged on varied accordi ng to their age. At Reception and Year 2, pupils were most likely to be practising and revising skills, a similar finding to that reported by Bennett et al. (1984). However from Year 5 onwards, tasks involving the application of existing knowledge to new problems became increasingly predominant. Gaining new knowledge remained relatively constant over primary and secondary school levels. The prevalence of practice tasks in early schooling reflects a greater emphasis by teachers and the curriculum on pupils getting to grips with basic skills. Implications of the study There may, however, be good reasons for absence of peer interactive work in primary classrooms and some secondary classes (e.g. in Mathematics). Throughout primary school, pupils are only just beginning to be able to engage in these forms of interaction and it may be the case that they are not able to do this without considerable support from an adult. These forms of working require pupils to take responsibility fo r their own learning, along with the presence of mind and complex communication skills to be able to resolve disputes and to reach a democratic consensus. This may be a challenge when they are used to being dependent on adults. Research evidence supports this view. Teachers and pupils often have concerns about group work. There is a general belief that children do not learn from peer interaction (Lewis Cowie, 1993). Teachers also suggest that group work can often mean increased disruption, increased pupil conflict and that it is only useful for high or low ability pupils ( Cowie, Smith, Boulton, Laver, 1994; Cohen Intilli, 1981; Lewis Cowie, 1993). Creating effective group working tasks and conditions is harder and more time consuming than a traditional didactic and independent learning approach. Teachers may not feel that they have the skill, time or resources to help them make peer interactive learning work. This may be especially the case since there has been a shortage of re search examining how group work involving high level talk and learning can be used effectively in primary classrooms (though see Mercer, 2000). This is a task currently being undertaken by the current authors (see Blatchford et al., this volume). In summary, our findings suggest that a number of changes in grouping practices take place with pupil age. However, the nature of these changes do not make the most of pupils’ learning potential since there is limited use of peer interactive work in primary classrooms. 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